Cognitivism and Foreign Language Learning

Cognitivism and Foreign Language Learning

Wildan M Muttaqin

The English and Foreign Languages University

Introduction

Skinner’s theory of verbal behaviorism has got number of critics, especially from cognitive psychologists; among them was Noam Chomsky (1959) who argued that skinner’s model was not adequate to account for language acquisition. In Chomsky’s view much of  language use is not imitated by behavior but is created a new from underlying knowledge of abstract rules. Sentences are not learned by imitation and repetition but ‘generated’ from the learner’s underlying ‘competence’ (Chomsky,1966). In general cognitive psychologists challenge the limitations of behaviorism in its focus on observable behavior.

As a reaction to behaviorism, cognitivism believes that people are rational beings that require active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are consequence of thinking. Changes in behavior are observed, but only as an indication of what is occurring in the learner’s head. Cognitivism focuses on the inner mental activities; opening the ‘black box’ of the human mind is valuable and necessary for understanding how people learn. Mental processes such as thinking, memory, knowing, and problem solving need to be explored. Knowledge can be seen as schma or symbolic mental constructions. Learning is defined as change in a learner’s schemata. Cognitivism uses the metaphor if the mind as computer, information comes in, is being processed, and lead to certain outcomes. Cognitive theories, therefore have replaced behaviorism in 1960 as the domain paradigm. The belief that much of human behavior can be understood if we understand first how people think presently represents the mainstream of thinking in both psychology and education.

An Overview of Cognitive Theory

Cognitive psychology is concerned about cognitive process of knowledge acquisition. American heritage dictionary of the English language gives the meaning of cognition as ‘the mental process by which knowledge is acquired. There are several basic of characteristics of cognition: (1) cognition is a process; (2) this process is mental; (3) this process is purposive; (4) by implication, this process is internal; and (5) by implication, this process is ultimately under the control of the learners, even if one is coerced into learning by external pressure. “Thus, the term of cognitive process refers to the individual internal mental operation. It may involve conscious attention  to some points the teaching is making, conscious reorganization of material to understand better the concept being learned, or conscious attempts to recall previously learned information. Many ideas and assumptions of cognitive psychology can be back to early decades of twentieth century such as gestalt psychology, Edward Tolman’s cognitive learning, and Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory. Anderson (1985) lists three main influences account for modern development of Cognitive psychology. They are research on human performance, closely related to the development of the information-processing approach, and influence on cognitive psychology, which studies the structure of language (linguistics). 

In cognitive theory, the mind is viewed as an agent in the thinking learning process. In this sense, there are no passive learners. Conscious learning required active participation on the part of the learner. Learning is controlled basically by individuals (learners) and not by their surroundings. The mind is active and determining agent in the acquisition and storage of knowledge. Such a viewpoint of learning is considered mentalistic (Chastain, 1976:14). The learners tend to remember better when knowledge is acquired through distributed practice across various study sessions, rather than through massed practice, although the distribution of time during any given study session does not seem to affect transfer into long-term storage. (Anderson 1983; Sternberg 1996)

Cognitive Learning Styles

Learning styles are described as preferences, which are meant to suggest that one or another styles of a learning style dimension is as good as the others. Learning styles are different with learning strategies. The term learning styles refer to ‘’..an individual’s natural habitual, and preferred ways of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills.”(Kinsella, 1995,p.171), while learning strategies refer to “…characteristics we want to stimulate in students to enable them to become more proficient language learners.”(Oxford,1990, p.ix).

Cheke-murcia (2001) states that learning styles are the general approaches- for example, global or analytic, auditory or visual- that students use in acquiring a new language or in learning any other subjects. These styles are ‘’the overall patterns that give general direction to learning behavior” (cornett, 1983). To make clear about the understanding of learning styles, Dunn and Griggs (1998) states that learning style is the biologically and developmentally imposed set of characteristics that make the same teaching method wonderful for some and terrible for others.

In learning style categories, cognitive learning styles are closely related to cognitive processing styles (concrete-abstract) and personality styles ( eg.extraversion-introversion).

Erhman (1999) categorizes cognitive learning styles as follows:

·         Sequential-random

An extremely sequential learner is likely to become frustrated with very-open ended classroom activities such as extensive free conversation. Many sequential learners say that they prefer to master one thing before going on to the next. They want often repetition offered overtly in the form of drilling and other exercises in which the variables are controlled. They often systematic and good planners.

Random learners, in contrast tend to find their own learning sequence. In facts, most random processors are vey systematic learners, but their systems are often idiosyncratic, and their approach seems random to their outsider. A random learner makes connections between new and old knowledge.

·         Concrete-abstract

A concrete learner needs direct sensory contact with the language and its meaning. A concrete learner needs to relate what is learned to direct experience. Abstract learners, in contrast are likely to pay attentions to issues of accuracy learn and apply rules. They may avoid real language use, and they find the system more interesting than actual communication.

·         Deductive and inductive

Deductive learners begin learning with a rule and apply it to specific cases. Inductive learners begin with the data and seeks the generalizations that can be extracted. In general, deductive processing tests a theory (rule, generalization) against the facts. Inductive processing seeks t find a theory (rule, generalization) by looking for patterns in data. 

·         Left and right hemisphere

Left hemisphere is used as action brain. It is also used to accumulate knowledge. Some characteristics associated with left hemisphere are verbal, sequential, analytic, names, control feelings, parts, classification, deduction, literal, and spotlight.

Right hemisphere is used to overview of things. Teacher is to support creative thought. Some characteristics associated with right hemisphere are pictorial-image-gestures, simultaneous, synthetic-global, faces, express feelings, wholes, generalization, induction, metaphoric, and floodlight.

Application of Cognitive Theory in Language Learning

Cognitive psychology, together with Chomsky’s transformational grammar, give rise to its own method of language learning called Cognitive approach or cognitive code learning (CCL). In cognitive theory, the mind is viewed as in agent in the learning process. So, learners are active processors of information. In addition, teacher should encourage an active questioning attitude on the part of learners, to help them understand and to relate what is being learned to what they already know. Periodic application sessions in which the learners are expected to demonstrate their ability to recall what they have learned and to ‘use’ it is important. These can make sure that the information is functional and can be utilized to further additional learning or to solve problems. Cognitive code learning advocated by cognitive psychologist and applied linguistics such as Ausubel, JB Carrol, and K Chastain in the 1960 was intended as an alternative to the audiolingual method that emphasizes habit formation as process of language learning. Because of its emphasis on studying foreign language as a system of rules and knowledge, rather than learning it as a set of skills, the cognitive code learning is sometimes considered the modern version of the grammar translation method.Unlike behaviorism, “cognitivism views the learning process as a two way process between the organism and its environment” (Nunan,1991:232).

Classroom procedures based on cognitive theories of learning emphasize understanding rather than habit formation (eg.Audiolingual method). The teacher’s task is to facilitate student acquisition, organization, and storage of knowledge.

Chastain (1976) states that the goal of the teacher is to expand the student’s ability to create meaningful replies. On the other hand, student should always be aware of what they are learning. All learning is to be meaningful. In so doing, the teacher can do the following:

·         Build on what the students already know;

·         Help the students relate material to themselves, their life experiences, and their previous knowledge;

·         Avoids rote learning (except perhaps in the case of vocabulary);

·         Use graphic and schematic procedures to clarify relationships;

·         Utilize both written and spoken language in order to appeal to as many senses as possible;

·         Attempt to select the most appropriate teaching learning situation for the students’ involvement;

·         Employ the first language, visual, or demonstrations as a base from which to build conceptualization of meaning and form in the second language; and

·         Use inductive, deductive, or discovery learning procedures as the situation warrants.

Cognitive code learning emphasizes the role of rote learning, along with the technique of mimicry and memorization (mim-mem). Cognitivism accepts the value of rules- it is felt that a few carefully chosen examples of rules in operation can be an important short-cut to learning. The emphasis at all times should be on language learning as an active intelligent, rule-seeking, problem-solving process in which learners are encouraged to discuss the way the target language operates.

Conclusion

Cognitivism believes that people learn not always trough response to environmental stimuli; people are rational beings who can use their cognitive power such as problem-solving to acquire knowledge. The cognitive psychology views learning process as two-way process between the organisms (learners) and their environment. In cognitive theory, the mind is viewed as an agent in learning process. So, learners are active processors of information. In learning style categories, cognitive learning styles are closely related to cognitive processing styles. Some categorizes cognitive learning styles are sequential-random learners, concrete-abstract learners, deductive- inductive learners, and Left-right hemisphere learners.

Cognitive psychology underpins the rise of a foreign language teaching methodology called Cognitive Approach or Cognitive Code Learning (CCL). It emphasizes on studying a foreign language as a system of rules and knowledge, rather than learning it as a set of skills. This method was intended as an alternative to Audiolingual method that emphasizes habit formation as a process of language learning. The role of the teacher is to recognize the importance of the students’ mental assets and mental activity in learning.

References

Anderson, J. (1985). Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications. New York: Freeman.

APA. (2011). Publication manual of the American Psychological Association - 6th ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Chastain, Kenneth. (1976). Developing Second-Language Skills: Theory to Practice. Chicago: Rand McNally.

Chomsky, Noam. (1959). ‘Review of Skinner’s verbal Behavior”. Language,35:26-58

Chomsky, Noam. (1966). ‘Linguistic Theory’ in J.P.B. Allen and P.Van Buren (Eds.). Chomsky: selected Readings. London: Oxford University Press.

Erhman. (1999). Understanding Second Language Difficulties.

Nunan, David. (1991). Language Teaching Methodology. New York: Prentice Hall.

Sternberg, R. (1996). Cognitive Psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.